CHAPTER 3

GALAXIES AND TIME

3.1 Introduction

The two fundamental forces of our physical world, namely, the force of gravity and the centrifugal force, seem to be valid within the vast expanses of our observable Universe. The force of gravity is said to be the force of attraction between two masses of any size. The centrifugal force, on the other hand, is defined to be a force that impels a rotating mass away from its rotating axis or center. We are not going into details of these two forces here since they are extensively treated in a number of Physics books of different academic levels.

Based on our current understanding of these forces, we can safely say that in a system of two celestial bodies of significantly different masses, one of which is in orbit around the other, there appears to be a balance between these forces regardless of the distance. However, as the distance between the two increases, mean orbital velocity of the rotating mass decreases and this is well within our expectations considering out present level of knowledge. So if we wish to place two similar satellites into Earth orbits, the one in a lower orbit will have a higher mean orbital velocity than the one in higher orbit.

There are of course no surprises here since planets around the Sun behave exactly in the same manner. While Mercury, the planet nearest to the Sun has a mean orbital velocity of approximately 30 miles per second, Pluto, the 9^th planet from the Sun has a mean orbital velocity of about 3 miles per second. On a smaller scale, rings of Saturn act in a similar manner. Inner rings have higher orbital velocities than outer rings. Satellites of Jupiter act in a similar manner if we take into consideration of their relative masses.

On a greater scale, same forces apply to the arms of a Spiral Galaxy. Since these arms are made of masses of significantly different sizes, each and every mass rotating around the central core of galaxy behave in the same manner of a celestial body in orbit around another.  The masses in each arm of a spiral galaxy are in orbit around the central mass independently from each other since the gravitational pull of the central mass is the dominating force here although some interaction between near-by masses are expected. The orbital velocity of each mass rotating around the central mass is, in part, a function of its distance from the central mass. Accordingly, masses within the arms rotating near the central mass have higher orbital velocities while the masses rotating at a greater distance have slower orbital velocities.

This implies that the arms of a spiral galaxy are being continuously stretched out as a function of time and distance. This is a far reaching conclusion since it might present clues about the age of a spiral galaxy, therefore affecting our previous perceptions about the age of the Universe.

Let us take this line of reasoning one step further. If the length of arms of a spiral galaxy is a function of its age, then using Galaxy Classification Chart presented by Dr. Timothy Ferris, Fig. 3-1a, we can safely deduce that an Sd galaxy is younger than an Sc galaxy while an Sc is younger than an Sb. Similarly, an Sb is younger than an Sa. We can now say that we have an idea about how a spiral galaxy evolves as a function of time.

We are now ready to consider the form of a spiral galaxy before it becomes an Sd galaxy. In order to do this, however, we must travel back in time. If the arms of a spiral galaxy stretch as a function of time, then, reversing this process, we should reach a form of a spiral galaxy consisting of a central mass with two linear arms pointing straight out and perpendicular to its surface at two opposite points at its equator. This is significant because it implies that spiral arms may have been ejected from the core of the central mass of the spiral galaxy at the very beginning. If this is true, than, a spiral galaxy might have looked like a barred spiral before evolving into an Sd galaxy.

Let us review what we have proposed so far. We have a massive central mass, possibly a massive black hole, whose core is under immense pressure and heat, ejects two columns of overheated plasma (here plasma refers to atoms of 100% energy and no mass) from two opposite points at its equator with the help of the centrifugal force created by its spin around its axis. These two newly ejected plasma columns then slowly begin to evolve to become spiral arms as they begin to cool and convert from plasma to mass as they expand in all directions. At this stage, a spiral galaxy possibly looks like a barred spiral, more specifically like an SBa galaxy. It, then, sequentially evolves into an SBb, SBc and SBd before becoming an Sd galaxy.

But what the future holds for a spiral galaxy? I suspect that as the stretching of spiral arms continue, each arm revolves around the central core multiple times and as a result they begin to fill the once unoccupied space with mass. Consequently, there is now increased gravitational interaction between the adjacent arms. This process begins to break up spiral arms. Cartwheel Galaxy is an example of this stage of breaking up. In the end, some segments of original spiral arms in part form an outer ring while some of the mass fall back at the central core. Once this process is completed, our spiral galaxy is now a ring galaxy. Hoag’s Object is an example of a typical Ring Galaxy.

Ring galaxies are the most stable forms of galaxies. However, over billions of years, the ring, converts into 100% mass by further cooling and becomes more susceptible to outside gravitational pulls. This leads to disintegration under the effects of other near-by gravitational forces leaving central core to start all over again to gather new mass as it plunges through the great vastness of space to become another massive black hole in order to start a new spiral galaxy.

3.2 Dark Matter

In previous chapters, we discussed how atoms in extremely cold temperatures become mostly mass and very little energy. When atoms become mostly mass, as in gray matter, or 100% of mass as in dark matter, the gravity fields they create are much stronger allowing their attractive force to extend to reach greater distances in space to pull in more of the freely floating matter in their vicinity allowing the formation of an initial mass. Once formed, this initial mass gets larger and bigger, its density increases several fold, its gravity field becomes stronger and reaches further and the process of gathering dark and gray matter accelerates exponentially. Eventually, this initial mass reaches a point in which it becomes a black hole whose gravity field is so strong that no mass can escape its gravity field. Big black holes are said to have devoured galaxies and star clusters at an alarming rate as they plunge through the Universe.

3.3 Anatomy of a Black Hole

A massive black hole, cold on the outside, can have an extremely hot interior since atoms in its core are pressed against each under the weight of mass above. (Remember the temperature gradient of atoms?) As black hole gets larger, the temperature in its interior eventually reaches millions of degrees. At these very high temperatures, its interior is mostly plasma, another way of saying 100% energy, with pressures reaching millions of pounds per square inch, striking a balance between the gravity force that is trying to collapse the black hole to its center and the pressure created by the electric charges that are trying to expand. At this stage, a black hole has two specific characteristics. First of these, of course, is its immense gravity field. But it also has an immense field of electric charge because of the electric charges trapped inside at extremely high temperatures create a charge field outside. So if the path of a light beam is bent in the near vicinity of a black hole, it is probably because of this charge field instead of its strong gravity presence since we assume that photons have no mass and therefore they are not affected by any gravity field regardless of how immense that gravity field might be. (The other probability is that photons might have an extremely small mass therefore are affected by the immense gravity field of  a back hole)

As the black hole grows bigger and bigger, more of it mass transforms into electric charge leaving a relatively thinner shell, proportionally speaking, to contain a steadily increasing pressure inside. At one point after reaching a critical inner pressure level, a black hole either explodes to become a Super Nova, if the black hole has no spin or a Galaxy, if it has spin.

If we could peer into a black hole and see it inner structure, we would observe a central spherical core of plasma of atoms of 100% energy. Immediately next to the core, we will find a transition zone of gray matter in which atoms are differentiated based on their E/M ratios. While those atoms with high E/M ratio are near the core, others with low E/M ratio are at an increasing distance as a function of their temperature.

Finally, dark matter of atoms that are 100% mass envelopes the entire core and sphere of gray matter to complete the structure of a black hole. Because of this reasoning, we must propose that all black holes are spherical in shape and that is in line with other spherical celestial objects we have observed so far.

Now, we must remember that the dark matter that envelopes the entire structure of a black hole has an immense density and this density increases as the black hole gains mass and contracts. Furthermore, as the black hole gains mass and contracts, its spin proportionally increases until it reaches a critical angular speed. At this extremely high angular velocity, the mass at the equator of a black hole begins to feel the effects of this centrifugal force. Accordingly, the gravity force that is pulling back the dark matter of its shell is now weakened by the centrifugal force that is trying to impel the same dark matter. Once the balance between these two forces changes in favor of the centrifugal force,  a black hole begins to eject extremely hot gray matter and plasma straight out at its equator.

3.4 Spiral Arms

In the previous paragraph, we said that, for a black hole to become a galaxy, it must have spin.  The reason for that is simple. Rotation creates centrifugal force and centrifugal force helps the pressure inside the black hole to find a weak spot to punch a hole at its equator. In other words, once the pressure inside the black hole finds a weak point at the equator of the black hole because of its high angular speed, it pierces through the shell and ejects a column or two or more of hot atoms with no mass straight into the space. The ejection of extremely hot atoms of pure electric charges continues from one or more holes as the black hole continues to collapse on itself, cooling its hot interior in the process while providing additional pressure to help ejection process to continue. (Think of squeezing a lemon to get the juice out) Once the pressure inside the black hole falls below the pressure levels necessary to eject hot atomic column, ejection stops but the black hole continues to collapse on itself until it can no longer do so and its spin, increasingly faster as its mass moves closer into its center.

Depending upon the initial pressure levels of hot atoms at or near the core of the black hole, amount and the speed of ejected material and the angular speed of the black hole during ejection, dictates the form of spiral arms of the galaxy. This, in a nut shell, is the birth of a spiral galaxy. It is important to remember that, during ejection, hot atoms with no mass, freed from being under immense pressure in the core, begin a process of rapid cooling and acquiring a mass while still travelling outward. However, after a rapid initial cooling and acquiring mass, the cooling process slows down and as a result, galaxy arms are composed of atoms of various rates of mass and energy. We have here clarified once for all how a massive black hole with its immense gravity field allows ejection of spiral arms and formation of spiral arms despite the fact that no light is said to escape its overpowering gravity field.

It is important to remember that after the ejection of spiral arms stop, black hole at the center of galaxy still has a very hot core and therefore has a very strong electric charge field which excites the atoms engulfing the black hole, allowing them to emit radiation. This is why a black hole at the center of a galaxy shines brightly when its radiation levels fall into the visible range of light spectrum at a distance on cosmic scale.

One unique property of spiral arms at this stage is that they are mostly made up of atoms with different E/M ratios. This is critical since as the cooling continues, clusters of mass with different E/M ratios begin to form new gatherings of mass. This is how stars and planets are created when this newly created masses increase in size and develop their own hot interiors. Our Sun is a product of this process. Stars in intergalactic space are examples of the same process. Without existence of the temperature gradient of our atom, galaxies and stars could not have been possible.

One final but very important note about the galaxy arms… In much younger galaxies whose spiral arms are mostly made up with matter of high E/M ratios, galaxy arms are affected by both the gravitational field created by the mass of the black hole but also the electric charge field created by the plasma in the hot core of the black hole. As a spiral galaxy matures however the influence of the electric charge field diminishes because galaxy arms are now mostly matter and therefore contain a lesser amount of matter with high E/M ratio. Similarly, arms closer to the central mass are influenced to a greater degree by the electric field created due to existence of hot plasma in the core of the black hole. This explains why some spirals have bars when they are very young and have massive amounts of matter with high E/M ratio. The central bar in a spiral galaxy however eventually disappears when high E/M ratio of matter near the central mass slowly drops to low E/M ratio therefore decreasing the effects of charge field created by the plasma in the core of black hole. As a result, it is safe to propose that spiral arms of a galaxy will not only obey the laws of gravity, but to some degree to the laws of potential fields of electric charges as a function of the age of a spiral galaxy.

Let us summarize what we have proposed so far. Our spiral galaxy begins life as a massive black hole spinning around its North/South axis with an increasingly greater angular velocity. As a result, the massive black hole in our illustration is more of an ellipsoid than a sphere. (Our Earth is also an ellipsoid, albeit slightly but not perfectly. In the field of Geodesy, its shape is often referred to be a Geoid).

This author suspects that Elliptic and SO galaxies do have massive central masses spinning at extremely high angular velocities which transform their shapes from a sphere to an ellipsoid of various degrees. As a result, ejected hot matter fails to form individual arms but rather engulfs the central core. In other words, in the opinion of this author, elliptic galaxies are failed spirals. In the case of an SBO Galaxy, some of the ejected material forms a Saturn like ring.

Once inside pressure with the help of centrifugal force created by its axial spin helps to eject, in this case, two columns of overheated matter of high energy atoms forming the two nearly spiral arms directly pointing away from the central mass.

As the cooling begins, atoms of the elected mass acquire a higher percentage of mass. As a result the two ejected arms begin to feel the effects of the gravity field of the central mass. Consequently, more developed spiral arms begin to form. A young spiral galaxy has more energy and less mass while a mature spiral galaxy has more mass and less energy.

Our Milky Way Galaxy is in transition from stage g to stage h therefore is a mature spiral galaxy in the very early stages of splitting and breaking up its spiral arms. Hoag’s Object on the other hand is in stage k while SN1987A is in stage l. Please remember that in very early stages of galaxy development, the charge field of plasma in the core of central mass has a greater influence in the shape of spiral arms near the core because the E/M ratio of the matter that makes up the arms is relatively high. As the galaxy gets older this E/M ratio becomes relatively lower therefore the force of gravity has a significantly more effect on the shape of spiral arms.