THE
NEW
UNIVERSE
COSMOS IS CALLING
Revised
2nd Edition
ROBERT
HOUSTON
This
book is dedicated to all those who made a positive contribution to our
scientific knowledge in order to illuminate our minds, to help elevate humanity
above the darkness of ignorance and indoctrination and to help erase the
barriers of discrimination, hate and bigotry.
CONTENTS
DEDICATION
FOREWORD TO 2nd EDITION
FOREWORD TO 1st EDITION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SPECIAL THANKS
AXIOM
CHAPTER 1; SPECTRAL THEORY OF ATOMS
1.1
Introduction
1.2
The Standard Model
1.3
Blacksmith Experiment
1.4
Interactive Atoms
1.5
Spectral Theory at Extreme Temperatures
1.6
Crystallization
1.7
Temperature Gradient of an Atom
1.8
Magnetism
1.9
Unified Field Revisited
1.10
Radioactivity
1.11
Atoms at the Speed of Light
1.12
Dark Room Experiment
CHAPTER 2; SPECTRA OF LIFE
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Fire Flies
2.3 Fall Colors
2.4 DNA
2.5 Brain Waves
2.6 Colors and Human Eye
CHAPTER 3; GALAXIES AND TIME
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Dark Matter
3.3 Anatomy of a Black Hole
3.4 Spiral Arms
CHAPTER 4; FOOTPRINTS OF A PLANETARY
SYSTEM
4.1 Definitions
4.2 A Star is Born
4.3 Planetary Systems
4.4 The Blue Planet
CHAPTER 5; NEBULAE
5.1 Factories of Atoms
5.2 Antimatter
CHAPTER 6; COSMIC CYCLE
6.1 Red Shifted Blues
6.2 Seismic Acoustic Waves
6.3 Cosmic Cycle
6.4 Age of the Universe
6.5 Conclusions
EPILOGUE
PROFILE
FOREWORD
TO
2nd EDITION
Lately, it seems, not a
day goes by without some news of an exciting new scientific discovery in the
field of physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy or medicine. With each discovery, a missing piece of the
great puzzle of human knowledge falls in place to open a new window into the
unknown in the scientific realm. Although these new discoveries may well be
significant enough to stand up on their own merits in their own fields, they do
rarely go beyond the limits of the field they belong to in order to impact
other fields of science… For instance, in Particle Physics, a significant new
particle may be discovered to change our understanding of the Standard Model
and yet the implications of such discovery on other fields of science such as
Medicine or Chemistry seem not fully warrant an investigation or understanding.
We, as scientists, appear to be content with the excitement generated by our
discovery, whatever that may be.
If for a moment we can
assume science to be a big jigsaw puzzle where each significant new discovery
represents a piece to fall in place in order to complete the big picture, the
significance of the shape of one piece to the shape of another is decisive in successfully
solving the puzzle to fully see the emerging picture. Similarly, in science, each new discovery
regardless of the field it belongs to has an intimate and undeniable connection
to everything we have so far discovered or will discover in the future in all branches of science.
Yet, scientific discoveries so far in each and every branch of science seem to
stand alone and advance without any in depth connection to discoveries in other
fields. For example, how do our generally accepted parameters of the Standard
Model impact our understanding of the processes leading to formation of a Black
Hole or a Supernova? Similarly, how splicing a human gene in order to alter its
structure is affected by the presumed discovery of the Higgs Boson? We all
agree that there is undisputable evidence of evolution. But why there is
evolution? What drives evolution to happen? What is the mechanism in cell level
that allows it to happen? How our Standard Model contributes to that process we
call evolution? So far however we don’t appear to be interested enough to
reason at that level of scientific curiosity, inquiry or understanding.
It is increasingly
clear that there is an unbreakable intimate scientific connection between the
smallest atomic particle we have so far
discovered and the largest of celestial bodies we have so far observed
in the Universe and everything in between and that the nature of the smallest
dictates the nature of the largest and everything in between and vice versa.
Validating and documenting that intimate connection in my opinion is the
remaining big challenge for scholars to tackle as we move into the future.
Accordingly, this new edition of The New Universe aspires at some level to be a
small step in that direction.
The Universe is simply
too big for a single mind to comprehend. I say this because I am aware of all
the contributions made to science by the great minds of the past. Those were
minds that had awesome power to illuminate our way through the ages in order to
enrich our scientific knowledge. I am forever indebted to them for giving me
the knowledge so I could be educated without being indoctrinated. As a result,
this book did not attempt to search for an explanation for every observation or
event in the Universe. Instead, its objective was to form a framework from
which further scientific inquiry can be launched in order illuminate the way
for more significant discoveries and help answer some of the most persistent
questions about who we are and why we are here. It is natural to expect that
there will be differences of opinions about a myriad of subjects mentioned in
this book. I welcome dissent where and when plausible as long as it is part of
our efforts to advance our understanding of the Universe, our place within and
our destiny. After all, we, as humanity, are a piece in the great jigsaw puzzle
we call Universe and have an obligation, in my opinion, to help elevate
humanity above darkness, to protect our environment and the species within as
well as help improve our lives. Without advancing our scientific knowledge,
this will be a difficult task
This second edition
expands on the ideas presented in the first edition and includes new concepts
both at the atomic and cosmic scale. A desire to search for knowledge is behind
the every word written in this work. If, by any chance, this book inspires you
to see the Universe in a new light, I would consider that its mission has been
accomplished.
With that in mind, let
the journey begin.
FOREWORD
TO
1st
EDITION
If I have to describe
Dr. Wernher von Braun in a single sentence, I guess it will be historically
correct to name him as the first person who freed humanity from the entrapment
of Earth’s gravity. The launch vehicles he had designed and developed, allowed,
for the first time, interplanetary flights such as the Voyager Missions, Moon
Landings and the placement of Hubble Telescope in an orbit above the
undesirable filtering effects of our atmosphere. Such accomplishments resulted
in an unprecedented expansion of our observations about the planet we live on,
our Solar System and the Universe. Our efforts to interpret these new
observations opened the door for a large number of new theories and
speculations about everything around us including the creation of the Universe,
in part, to satisfy our need and desire to assign a beginning and an end to
every event we witness.
However, there appears
to be an aspect of the Universe, which would not reveal its secrets, yet
dictates that we proceed in an orderly fashion, sort of, one step at a time, to
confirm our beliefs. If this perception is correct, then it would indeed be
logical to pursue a higher level of understanding of Galaxies, including their
formation, evolution and disintegration in order to journey into the farthest
frontiers of the Universe. This book, then, is a small step in that direction.
All books have a reason
to exist. The reason behind this book is an event that took place in the summer
of 1994. In two separate letters to the American Geophysical Union and the
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, I first raised the possibility of faster
rotation of the Earth’s inner core than its outer shell. At the time, this idea
was beyond the generally accepted standards of our scientific world. In 1997,
however, the scientists documented the first evidence to support the validity
of this idea. Similarly, there are ideas presented in this book that are now
beyond our current scientific realm. Hopefully, these ideas will lead to some
significant discoveries that will enhance our understanding of the Universe and
will enrich your enthusiasm about our scientific knowledge.
I take pleasure in
welcoming you aboard.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book could not
have been possible without the work of all scientists before me since the dawn
of humanity. I am greatly indebted to all of them for helping me to understand.
SPECIAL
THANKS
Special thanks to NASA
and Wiki Commons for offering their images under public domain rules, which
made it possible those images to be used in this book. I also wish to thank my
daughter Stephanie for her assistance in making the digital illustrations possible.
Without her help, this book could not have been complete.
If you wish to create
an atom,
you must first create
a Universe.
CHAPTER 1
SPECTRAL THEORY OF ATOMS
1.1 Introduction
Ancient civilizations had long
wondered about the nature of matter and had considered the subject by offering
concepts and explanations heavily influenced by the philosophical and spiritual
beliefs of their times. In the 5th Century B.C., a Greek philosopher
named Democritus, for the first time, asserted that the matter was made of very
small indivisible particles called atoms despite the fact that these atoms were
too small to be seen by naked eye. Although hotly contested at the time, his
concept eventually gained acceptance and remained as the prevailing theory of
understanding the nature of matter until the 19th Century.
In the early years of the 19th
Century, an Englishman and a scientist, John Dalton (1766-1844) proposed his
own atomic theory, in which, he suggested that each element known at the time
was composed of atoms of a single and unique type and these atoms were
fundamental, indivisible and indestructible even though they could combine to
form other chemical compounds in reversible chemical reactions. His proposals
were helpful in understanding the first law of conservation of mass as defined
in 1789 by Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), a French nobleman known today
as the father of modern Chemistry, as well as the law of definite proportions
formulated in 1799 by Joseph Louis Proust (1754-1826), a French chemist, which stated that if
a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, the masses of
constituents will always have the same proportions.
In 1897, however, a new discovery brought an end to the fundamentally
indivisible nature of atoms. While experimenting with Crooke’s tube, which is a
sealed glass vacuum container with an anode and a cathode, Sir Joseph John
Thomson (1856-1940), a British physicist and a Nobel laureate, observed a
glowing beam of light between electrodes when a high voltage electric potential
is applied. He called this glowing beam of light a Cathode Ray. Through
experimentation with electric and magnetic fields, which affected the path of
the Cathode Ray, he concluded that the Cathode Rays were negatively charged
particles, emitted by the very atoms of the cathode. These negatively charged
particles will later be called electrons. Presence of electrons meant that
atoms were divisible and electrons were part of the atomic structure. These
observations eventually led Sir Thomson to conclude that electrons were in fact
floating in a cloud of positive electricity, which in turn made the atoms
neutral in their behavior. Incidentally, this atomic model was named as the
Plum Pudding Model by other scientists of the era despite opposition by Sir
Thomson.
In 1909, Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) working with Ernest Marsden
(1889-1970) and Johannes (Hans) Wilhelm Geiger (1882-1945) conducted an
experiment during which positively charged alpha particles were shot at a gold
foil. Initially referred to as Rutherford Experiment, this observation which
later became to be known as Geiger-Marsden Experiment, indicated that most of
the atomic mass was concentrated in the center of an atom. This discovery later
led Danish physicist Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885-1962) to conclude that the
heavy nucleus of an atom is orbited by point like electrons in a manner similar
to motions of planets around our Sun.
In 1932, Sir James Chadwick (1891-1974) exposed hydrogen and nitrogen to beryllium
radiation and by measuring the energies of recoiling charged particles; he
deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral
particles with a mass similar to that of a proton. He called these particles
neutrons. Nevertheless, discoveries of subatomic particles did not stop
there. Scientists, using particle
accelerators, continued to discover subatomic particles in significant numbers
and their work eventually led to a new and generally accepted atomic model,
coined as The Standard Model.
1.2 The
Standard Model
According to the standard model, all subatomic particles are generally
members of two basic groups. Heavy particles, sometimes referred as Hadrons,
are said to include neutrons and protons, which in turn, are made up of quarks.
The light particles, called Leptons, are said to include electrons, muons and
tau particles. Quarks and Leptons are considered to be a subset of a bigger
group called Fermions, named after Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-1954),
who is known to have made great contributions to Particle Physics. In addition,
there is said to be a third group of particles, called Bosons which are said to
be force carriers. This group is also proposed to include gluons, the carriers
of the strong nuclear force, which help quarks to combine and stay together.
Among of those mentioned so far,
quarks, in turn, are said to have 6 different types; conveniently called
flavors, which are, up, down, strange, charm, top and bottom quarks. The last
two are also known as truth and beauty respectively. In addition, each of these
quarks are said to have their anti-particles, which in turn, are called antiup,
antidown, antistrange, anticharm, antitop and antibottom. According to standard
model, quarks also carry an electric charge. For instance an up quark has a
positive electric charge of 2/3 of an elementary charge whereas a down quark
has a negative 1/3 charge. Now, according to the standard model, two up quarks
and a down quark combine with the help of gluons to form a proton, which yields
to a total electric charge of +1 for the proton since (+2/3)+(+2/3)+(-1/3)=1. Similarly, an up
quark and two down quarks combine to form a neutron whose electric charge
equals to zero since (-1/3)+(-1/3)+(+2/3)=0. While three quarks are said to
unite to form a Baryon, which is another name for protons and neutrons, a quark
and an antiquark unite to form a Meson, which is considered to be a composite
particle and a boson and is said to be involved in the interactions which holds
the nucleus together.
As for the Leptons, there are also said to be 6 types, which are, electron,
electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau particle and tau neutrino. Muons
and tau particles are said to be like electrons but have more mass than
electrons whereas neutrinos are said to be particles with a very small mass at
the atomic scale and no charge, but they are said to carry energy. Neutrinos
are said to be observed during a process called beta decay. Leptons are also
said to be known to have their own antiparticles.
According to Standard Model, there are four known types of Bosons, which
are said to be force carriers. They are, namely, Photons which carries the
electromagnetic force, Gluons, which carries the strong nuclear force, which in
turn, keeps quarks bonded together, W and Z Bosons as weak nuclear force
carriers that are said to be involved in chemical reactions and finally the
gravitons, which carries the force of gravity. The gravitons are not currently
included in the standard model since their existence is theoretical and
unconfirmed. Unlike quarks and leptons, bosons do not have any antiparticles.
Photons and gluons are known to have no mass while weak force bosons have small
amount of mass. While fermions are known to have half spins, bosons are said to
have full spins expressed in integers.
At the time of this writing, there are said to be six types of quarks, six
types of leptons and four types of bosons that make up the standard model.
However, new subatomic particles are discovered every day and the list goes on.
For instance, at the time of this writing, there are about 140 mesons whose
existences are confirmed, and yet, more mesons are expected to be discovered
and added to the list. A particular interest is a force carrier called Higgs Boson
which is also referred by some as the God Particle. The Higgs Boson is
suspected to interact with particles without any mass to cause them to become
particles with mass. At the time of this writing, there are claims that this
elusive particle has finally been confirmed to exist by scientists at the Large
Hadron Collider built and operated by CERN which stands for European
Organization For Nuclear Research.
Nevertheless, there are questions about the standard model that need to be
investigated. For instance, quarks can only exist within a bag such as a proton
or a neutron and have not been observed in isolation in nature. Accordingly,
how is it possible for them to gather in various combinations to form composite
particles such as baryons and mesons if they can not stand alone? There are also particles whose half lives are
in nanoseconds. These particles can not exist isolated in nature long enough to
participate in the formation of any atom. If that is the case, how is it
possible for these particles to be a part of any subatomic structure?
Furthermore, how does an atom form in the nature or in the Universe? What kind
of mechanism should exist in the universe to fabricate an atom that is so
complex and what should be the specifications and properties of such a
mechanism?
1.3 Blacksmith
Experiment
It is clear that the information so far we know about the standard model
makes it nearly impossible to be used as a basis for the investigations we
would like to conduct within the framework of this book. For this reason, we will go back to an
experiment that long puzzled the classical physicists. In this experiment, a
blacksmith heats up a metal rod until it glows with radiant energy, first with
a red tint, later, at higher temperatures, with a yellow tint as shown in Figs:
1-1a & 1-1b. It is interesting to notice that the most heated part of the
metal glows yellowish white and the relatively cooler portion glows with a
reddish tint. If we compare this color display of the metal rod with the
spectrum of visible light, we immediately notice that yellow light has a higher
frequency than the red light. This means, beyond any reasonable doubt that
higher frequencies are associated with higher temperatures. Furthermore, as the
temperature drops, the frequency of the glowing light also drops and this
manifests itself in reddish tint of the radiant energy. Finally, when the
temperature drops further, the radiant energy disappears and the metal rod no
longer glows. If we repeat this experiment over and over again, the same
phenomenon repeats itself without any change in the physical and chemical
composition of the metal rod. As a result, we can deduce significant
conclusions from this experiment. First of all, the atoms subjected to heating
are not chemically altered. The radiant glow is exactly same in its appearance
and color in all directions meaning it is not affected by the direction of
observation and only thing that seems to affect the color of the radiant energy
is the temperature. The question then becomes, what in the atomic structure of
the heated metal rod is capable of radiating the frequencies of the spectrum of
the visible light? Is it possible to explain this radiant energy using
principles of the quantum theory?
It is generally accepted as a fact that according to the quantum theory,
energy is emitted in discrete amounts called quanta when electrons jump between
orbits of different energy levels surrounding the nucleus. Since this process
is expected to be purely random in nature, resulting frequency-amplitude
signature of the radiant energy should be different than the consistent
frequency-amplitude spectrum of the visible light. And yet, there seems to be a
proportional relation between frequency spectrum of the radiant energy and
temperature In addition, the Ultraviolet Catastrophe suggested by the Raleigh’s
law is completely inconsistent with the purely electromagnetic nature of the
visible light radiated in our experiment since electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum
between gamma rays and the radio waves. Furthermore, there is so far no
evidence of existence of any blackbody particle that can absorb and re-emit all
radiation as proposed and used by Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887) in his
explanation of the radiant energy observed when a piece of metal is heated.
Even more questionable is the assumption made by Max Planck (1858-1947) that
the radiant energy was emitted by tiny resonators within the atomic structure
since there has been no evidence so far of such a particle within the atomic
structure as presented by the standard model. In addition, Standard Model does
not address the wave and particle nature of visible light and the efforts to
discover a particle that generates frequencies within the atomic structures
have so far failed to yield a conclusive result.
Based on these considerations, it becomes necessary to approach to the
understanding of the radiant energy illustrated in our experiment from a
completely different point of view.
Using the principles of reverse engineering, we will try to establish what
an atom should be like and compare its properties with the results of
well-established physical experiments instead of working with the Standard
Model. Admittedly, this is no simple task because we must always bear in mind
all fundamental laws of Physics with which we can’t be in contradiction of any
kind. However, we will select the most fundamental laws of Physics to make our
comparisons, correctness of which we are fairly certain.
For our specific purposes, we will require an atom with great flexibility
of size and shape in response to the changing conditions of its physical
environment. It should have a simple structure that can be easily formed in
nature without having to require elaborate undertakings. But most importantly,
it should conform to the particle and wave nature of light.
The most suitable shape for any atom is a sphere because a sphere has
symmetry on its infinite number of axes and yet can be formed in nature with
great ease since Cosmos is full of spherical bodies formed entirely by the
forces beyond our control. (Remember the glowing iron rod? The color of glow
was same in all directions) Its spherical shape should also be very flexible,
very much like soap bubble floating in the air. Like a soap bubble, our atom
has no nucleus since all of its contents are in its shell. The shell itself is
composed of positive electricity inside, negative electricity outside and the
atomic mass in between the two. Since negative electric charge is outside the
shell, all chemical reactions can be performed as usual and the reactions with
positive electric charges within, namely nuclear reactions, will require the
destruction of its shell before they can happen. If we shoot a charged particle
traveling at a very high speed at our atom and hit it, it will shutter and its
fragments will scatter like those of a glass bottle hit by a bullet in a
spaghetti Western. (We will revisit this assumption a little later in the book)
We all know that likes repel so the positive electric charges within our
atom are trying to expand its shell by pushing it outward with a force
inversely proportional with its expansion. If there is no force to stop this
expansion, the shell of our atom will expand forever, albeit at an increasingly
slower rate with corresponding lower frequency and amplitude. However, there is
another force within our atom and that is the force of microgravity between
each and every point of its mass of the spherical shell and this force is
trying to contract the shell towards its center. Fig: 1-2. As a result, the
shell of our atom expands and contracts, creating a volumetric oscillation,
sort of like a pendulum, only in three dimensions. Fig: 1-3a and Fig: 1-3b.
These volumetric oscillations of the shell of our atom move the negative
electric charges on its surface back and forth in all directions to create a
three dimensional electromagnetic radiation field which allows our atom to
behave, not only like a particle, but also like a wave while mass of its shell
generates a three dimensional gravity wave field. This wave and particle
property of our atom is unchanged even when our atom is heated up to much
higher temperatures to act like a Photon which allows us to propose that light
is made up of atoms at higher temperatures. (We will further discuss this
property of our atoms later in this book) Furthermore, the negative charges
outside the shell of our atom cling to its surface and are held in place by the
attraction of the positive charges within. As a result our atom does not
require particles or force carriers to keep it together.
Atoms of each element have a special ratio that defines its physical and
chemical properties. This is the ratio of its electric charge to its mass. I
call this E/M ratio, the ratio of energy over mass. Here energy refers to the
electric charges of our atom and the mass refers to the mass of its shell. We
will come back to this ratio a little further down this book since it is such
an important parameter of our atomic model.
Nevertheless, one important question remains; how can soft atoms form a
piece of hard rock? When we squeeze a rock, we are actually applying a force
against the positive charges within the atom, not on its shell. The shell
itself can’t withstand the force we are applying, but the electric charge that
is trying to expand can since it is very strong at the atomic scale.
1.4 Interactive
Atoms
What we have described above is a dynamic atom as opposed to the static
nature of the Standard Model. As we will see later in the following chapters,
the universe and life can’t exist without this fundamental dynamic property of
our atom.
Now, let us consider the case of two similar atoms placed side by side. The
negative charges outside of their shells will repel each other, so our two
atoms are trying to distance themselves from each other. On the other hand,
force of microgravity, this time between each and every points of the atomic
masses of the adjacent atomic shells are pulling these two atoms closer. Fig:
1-4. The comparative strengths of these atomic forces allow three possible
outcomes of the inter-atomic balance. If the force of electric repulsion is
greater than the attractive force of microgravity, then these two atoms belong
to a gaseous element, such as Helium. On the other hand, if the attractive
force of microgravity is stronger than the force of electric repulsion, these
two atoms belong to a solid element, such as Iron. A near balance between these
forces results in a liquid element, such as Mercury. This explains why there is
only one liquid element, namely Mercury.
In considering these two similar atoms so far, we have assumed that these
two atoms have similar physical properties, such as their geometry, size of
their electric charges, mass of their shells, frequency and amplitude of their
volumetric oscillations and therefore their electromagnetic fields in three
dimensions. Since heat is electromagnetic radiation, we can say that these two
atoms are at the same temperature level. In case of two similar atoms with
different temperature levels, the frequency and amplitude of their volumetric
oscillations are different meaning they have two different atomic spectra. Fig:
1-5. The atom with the higher temperature has a relatively higher frequency and
amplitude, therefore a more powerful spectra and electromagnetic radiation,
which overpowers electromagnetic radiation and atomic spectra of the cooler
atom and in doing so it alters and elevates the frequency and amplitude of the
cooler atom, raising its temperature. This, in a nut shell, is heat transfer.
It also implies that there is only one kind of heat transfer, electromagnetic
radiation, instead of three, namely, conduction, convection and radiation. This
type of interaction is also behind the phenomenon called “Northern Lights” or
“Aurora Borealis”. When sun’s radiation, also called Solar Winds by some
scientists, increases its intensity, it excites the atoms and molecules in the
upper atmosphere, increasing their spectra into the range of visible light spectrum,
making their collective motion visible to the naked eye. Fig: 1-1d and Fig:
1-1e.
When the temperature of two adjacent atoms are elevated, increasing their
frequency and amplitude, they now occupy a greater space in universe when they
are at their maximum volume in order to provide enough space for their
volumetric oscillations to take place freely. This, in turn, means that the
distance between their volumetric centers are increased. This is called
expansion. Fig: 1-6. As a result, when we heat a metal bar, it expands.
Similarly, when we heat a gaseous element, its atoms also expand and try to
occupy a greater volume. If this gaseous element is within a confined space,
this force of expansion results in increased pressure and temperature because
of decreased free distance between their volumetric centers and increased
repulsive force between the atoms. This is possible because energy decreases by
the inverse square of distance. (Reasons
behind increased temperature will be dealt shortly)
Let us for a moment talk about a large number similar atoms belonging to a
gaseous element. We now know that their repulsive forces are greater than their
attractive forces, so the each atom of this gaseous element is trying to
distance itself from all others. (The force exerted on one single atom is
mainly dominated by the nearest atom in its vicinity although all atoms nearby
do contribute to overall force field affecting its direction of movement) As a
result, these two atoms in the nearest vicinity of each other will end up
moving in opposite directions until each gets close to another atom which in
turn will affect their direction of movement, forcing both to move in yet
another direction as dictated by repulsive force exerted by the atoms on their
path. This is “Brownian Movement”, also called “Random Walk”. “Diffusion” is
not possible without “Random Walk.
We are now ready to discuss temperature variations on atoms. Reducing
temperature will result in reduced levels of amplitude and frequency of
volumetric oscillations and will result in reduced repulsion forces, allowing
formation of liquids and solids from gases. The opposite of this process is
also true, which means that, increasing temperature will result in formation of
gases from liquids and solids.
If we can strip negative electric charges from the surface of our atom, it
becomes a positively charged particle. Accordingly, our Helium atom becomes an
Alpha Particle when it is stripped off its negative charge.
1.5 Spectral
Theory at Extreme Temperatures
If we continue to heat our atom, its frequency and amplitude continues to
increase. At very high temperatures our atom becomes a source of “Gamma Rays”
and at lower temperatures it is a source of “Radio Waves”.
If we subject our atom to extremely high temperatures of million degrees of
centigrade or more, something unexpected happens. As the temperature increases,
the E/M ratio of our atom begins to change. As the temperature increases our
atom has more electric charge and less mass. In other words, the mass of our
atom begins to dissolve into its components of negative and positive
electricity. We do not notice this change at room temperatures since it only
happens at extreme temperatures of million and billion degrees. When our atom
is more energy and less mass, it transforms into a state of Plasma. When
temperature is further increased, our atom becomes all electric charge (energy)
and no mass. At this extreme state, our atom is now a Photon. Nebulae in
interstellar space, in the opinion of this author, are examples of plasma state
as opposed to its more popular current definition of being a cloud of gas and
dust. We will revisit this subject further in the following chapters.
At the opposite end of temperature spectrum, at extremely low temperatures,
possibly millions of degrees below zero, our atom is all mass and no energy.
Its positive and negative electric charges have integrated to become additional
mass therefore increasing its mass to its maximum quantity. Since there is no
electric charge trying to expand its shell, our atom has no frequency and
amplitude and no electromagnetic radiation in a three dimensional field. Fig:
1-7. It has collapsed on itself leaving our atom occupying its smallest
possible volume. At these extremely low temperatures, our atom is Dark Matter.
A large percent of matter in the universe is said to be Dark matter by
astronomers. We will revisit this subject when we discuss the age of Universe
further down in this book.
Black Holes are examples of gatherings of atoms at very low temperatures
and this explains why Black Holes have such an immense gravity signatures.
Since there is no repulsive force of the negative electric charge, atoms at
these extremely low temperatures have no volumetric oscillations and therefore
no electromagnetic radiation. As a result, Black Holes can’t be directly
detected by optical or radio telescopes at great distances. However, existence
of Black Holes in the Universe has been indirectly confirmed by some
astronomers by means of their gravity pull on their surroundings.
1.6
Crystallization
So far we have only talked about atoms of single elements. The situation is
a little different when we talk about the interaction of two different atoms of
two different elements. As we have said before, at room temperature, each atom,
as a function of its geometry, energy, mass and spectrum, occupies a unique
volume of space. In a compound such as a mineral, where there are two or more
different kinds of atoms, the space between different atoms are dictated by their
comparative attractive and repulsive forces. For instance, attractive and
repulsive forces between two sulfur atoms is different than, say, attractive
and repulsive forces between two carbon atoms. As a result, the distance
between a sulfur atom and a carbon atom will be different than the distance
between two carbon atoms as well as the distance between two sulfur atoms. This
difference in relative spacing of different atoms results in different
crystalline forms and structures. If more elements exist within a given
mineral, more complex its crystalline form and structure become. This, in
general, dictates how many different dimensions exist within a crystalline
form. Fig: 1-8.
1.7 Temperature
Gradient of an Atom
It is clear from our considerations so far that our atom has
electromagnetic radiation and that translates into heat. It also means that as
we walk away from our atom, we feel less of its heat since electromagnetic
radiation decreases with the inverse square of the distance between the atom and
us. If we plot this temperature variation along anyone of our atom’s axes, we
get its temperature gradient as shown in Fig: 1-9. This is important because it
implies that as we get closer to our atom, we feel more of its heat. The
opposite is also true since we walk away from it, less heat we feel. This is a
significant observation since it implies that if we push two atoms together,
both of them will have higher temperatures. So, if we compress a gas in a
container, the temperature of the gas rises. This has major implications in
cosmology, especially in creation of stars and galaxies as well as in our
considerations over cosmic cycle. We will come back to this subject again to
discuss it in detail.
1.8 Magnetism
So far we have presented an atom, perfectly spherical in shape, whose
contents are uniformly distributed in its shell. This is not always the case,
however. Under certain conditions, electric charges of our atom may not be
distributed evenly within and outside of its shell. When this is the case,
something unusual happens. The side of our atom that has more electric charges
ends up having a greater repulsive force since presence of additional electric
charges now overpower the gravity pull of its mass while the side with lesser
amount of electric charges develops a greater attractive force or gravity pull
since its electric charges are now overpowered by the gravity pull of its mass.
As a result, our atom now has polarity and spins around its vertical axis when
it is subjected to an electromagnetic field to align itself with the polarity
of the electromagnetic field it is in. Furthermore, its attractive and
repulsive forces are not uniform in all directions which mean that it either
attracts or repels certain objects in its near vicinity with different levels
of force. We are not going to discuss magnetism in this book in detail since it
is presented in a wide variety of science books. Our purpose here is to
understand how an atom can have magnetic properties.
Magnetite, an ore of iron, has natural magnetic properties. We can also
create magnetic properties by inserting an iron rod into a coil. When we run an
electric current through the coil, electromagnetic field created by the coil
disturbs the uniform distribution of electric charges of the atoms of the iron
rod which results in its polarization. This in turn affects the balance of the
attractive and repulsive forces of the atoms of the iron rod repelling like
electric charges and attracting opposite electric charges with a greater force
depending on its direction of polarity.
Cross section of a magnetized atom is shown in Fig: 1-10. From this figure
we can clearly see that magnetic properties of our atom are the result of
uneven distribution of its electric charges whereas distribution of its mass
remains mostly unchanged. As a result,
it is possible to assert that magnetism is nothing other than a manifestation
of a lack of balance of power between gravity pull of mass and repulsive force
of negative electric charges, magnified significantly. This strongly suggests
that magnetic pull is micro gravity under special conditions.
From these conclusions, we can safely assume that our atom also has a
gravity gradient as shown in Fig: 1-11 when its attractive forces are greater
than its repulsive forces.
1.9 Unified
Field Revisited
If magnetism is micro gravity which is an attribute of mass when an
imbalance of electric charges exists at the atomic level, it is also a property
of energy since energy and mass are two phases of matter and they are convertible between the two as expressed by Albert
Einstein (1879-1955) in his famous formula of E=mc2. Here c2
is nothing more than a conversion ratio between the two. In other words, both
magnetism and gravity are potential fields of both energy and mass. Therefore
if gravity, magnetism, energy and mass are manifestations of matter, than
indeed there is a unified field theory as envisioned by Albert Einstein. Let us
summarize what we have just proposed one more time. Mass of our atom is created
at the boundary of negative and positive electric charges when they come into
contact with each other, which means that mass is created when opposite
electric charges combine. Therefore mass and energy are simply two different
phases of the same physical property. If gravity is the manifestation of mass,
it is a property of mass therefore it is also a property of energy. Similarly,
if magnetism is manifestation of micro gravity therefore of mass, it too is a
property of energy. In order to simplify our case, from now on, we will also
call electric charges as energy. Based on this assertion, energy and mass are
two different phases of matter where magnetism and gravity are manifestations
of mass which is a phase of energy. In the end everything is a manifestation of
energy. This is the Unified Field Theory in a nut shell.
1.10
Radioactivity
Up until now in this book, we have tried to demonstrate how our atomic
model easily explains physical observations such as Brownian Movement, heat
transfer and three states of matter, namely solid, liquid and gas states as
well as others including particle and wave nature of light and magnetism .
However, for our atomic model to be valid, it should also be able to explain
radioactivity, radioactive decay, transmutation and chain reactions.
Radioactivity was first observed in 1896 by Antoine Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) while experimenting with naturally fluorescent minerals and
photographic plates. During one particular experiment, Antoine Henri Becquerel
placed samples of Potassium Uranyl Sulfate, a sulfate of Uranium in mineral
form, on photographic plates and wrapped them in black paper to see if the
photographic plates were somehow affected by the samples of Uranyl Sulfate.
Experiment clearly showed that photographic plates were exposed to a new kind
of light which was different from the X-Rays discovered in 1985 by Wilhelm
Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923). Becquerel asserted that this new light was in fact
was a form of radiation, a new form of energy emitted by the Potassium Uranyl
Sulfate. This new form of radiation was later named “Radioactivity” by Marie
Currie (1867-1934) while working with her husband Pierre Currie (1859-1906) on
the subject.
We are not going into details of radioactivity here since it has been
discussed in great detail by many scientists and in academic papers and
publications. Our purpose here is to find out if our atom can explain
radioactivity at the atomic level for all practical purposes presented in this
book.
It is clear from this line of reasoning that transition from an atom of one
element to an atom of another element involves a change in its E/M ratio.
Consequently our atom can have infinite numbers of isotopes when its mass and
energy ratio is somewhat altered. Hence the difference between Uranium238
and Uranium234 is in their atomic mass as well as in their energy
levels.
If our atom has an inherent imbalance between its negative and positive
electric charges, it becomes unstable and therefore radioactive. When
radioactive, our atom tries to regain its atomic balance by converting some of
its mass into its constituents, namely positive and negative electric charges
and releasing them to reach a new equilibrium between its electric charges and
mass. This process corresponds to transmutation. The release of energy can be
in form of energy or mass until a desired amount of energy or mass is released.
As a result, our uranium atom can go through a number of stages to become an
atom of iron. When our atom reaches a higher level of imbalance between its
positive and negative charges and its mass, it can split to form new elements
to regain its balance. It is therefore feasible to assert that an element with
a higher atomic mass has higher energy levels because when its original
equilibrium between its mass and energy is lost, it has more mass to convert
into energy.
When its mass dissolves into its components of positive and negative
charges, our atom releases excess positive and negative electric charges in
order to regain its energy and mass balance. These released excess energy is
then in a position to affect the energy levels of other near-by atoms. This
process corresponds to nuclear chain reactions. This reasoning leads to a
significant conclusion. Nuclear reactions can happen regardless of the critical
mass of fissile material involved. What is required is the temperature levels
high enough to allow mass of the atomic shell to dissolve into its constituents
of electric charges either by pressing them together (fusion) or elevating
their temperature to extremely high levels (fission) by external means.
In nature, nuclear reactions happen all the time. Pitchblende, a uranium
mineral, releases energy continuously albeit in a much slower pace because of
the presence of other non-fissile materials in the mineral. We can observe this
release of energy since pitchblende glows under ultraviolet light in a dark
room at room temperature. However, non-fissile materials in uranium minerals
absorbs some of the energy released therefore preventing a chain reactions to
happen. Consequently, in order to release energy at much higher rates by means
of chain reactions, uranium or any other fissile material must be refined to
higher levels of concentration.
1.11 Atoms at
the Speed of Light
So far, in all of our deliberations, we have focused on atoms that are
stationary and are near the surface of the Earth. Now, we will take our
considerations one step further by asking what happens to our atom if it is
accelerated to extremely high speeds, speeds that are in the realm of speed of
light. This is extremely important because it explains what happens in a
Particle Accelerator or a Hadron Collider. As our atom is accelerated by means
of an alternating magnetic force field, it gains speed and therefore energy. We
have already established that as its energy increases by which we mean it
frequency and amplitude, our atom has less mass hence its E/M ratio has been
altered. At a final terminal velocity, our atom becomes all energy and no mass.
This means that only energy can travel at extremely high speeds and it is not
possible particles with mass to travel at such speeds. This is in total
contradiction with our experiments with Particle Accelerators. Is it possible
that what we capture and observe in Particle Accelerators are atoms with
extremely high E/M ratios? If accelerating atoms to higher speeds increase
their energy levels, can we precisely calculate their mass using c2
as a conversion constant?
Is it possible for two atoms, one stationary and the other travelling at
extremely high speeds, to collide? We know that two atoms with their negative
charges outside of their shell will have a repulsive force between them when
they are brought to close vicinity of each other. We also know, this repulsive
force becomes greater as the distance between them becomes shorter. Since this
repulsive force is extremely strong in atomic scale, it prevents these two
atoms to collide at ordinary speeds. At extremely high speeds, however, the
results can be different since atoms at much higher speeds have more energy and
less mass. Just like a glass bottle hitting a wall, it is possible to shutter
the accelerating atom when it collides with a stationary atom at extremely high
speeds. When that happens, shell of the accelerating atom disintegrates,
scattering its mass and electric charges. Since this process is completely
random in its nature, we can observe infinite numbers of various energy levels
in a Hadron Collider. No wonder, we have been discovering large numbers of
subatomic particles every day.
Finally, is there an experiment that can possibly support validity of our
atomic model? I believe there is one. The Oil Drop Experiment by Robert Andrews
Millikan (1868-1953) can be easily explained by our atomic model. An oil drop
made of molecules of atoms with their negatives charges outside of their shells
can actually float in a strong electromagnetic field if that field has its
negative polarity at the bottom and positive polarity at the top, counter
balancing the effect of force of gravity oil drop is subjected to.
1.12 Dark Room
Experiment
A photon is said to be the elementary particle of light according to the
Standard Model. As such, it is said to be the carrier of electromagnetic force
and the source of electromagnetic radiation. Furthermore, photons are said to
exhibit wave/particle duality meaning they possess properties of both waves and
particles. Our Sun is a source of photons just like any other source of light,
including a light bulb when subjected to electric current and a candle when lit
up. When we walk into a completely dark room, we can’t see anything since there
is no light therefore there are no photons to observe. Now, if we lit up a
candle in this dark room, suddenly there is light produced by the burning of
wax or tallow. We know that wax and tallow are made of molecules which in turn
are made up of atoms. It seems these atoms are producing photons but how? If we
try to touch the flickering flame of a candle, we find out that it is hot just
like a light bulb that has been on for a while. So, clearly heat is involved in
the process of producing photons. After all, our Sun has a lot of heat so far
as we can tell.
Clearly, atoms in the wax or tallow of a candle and the hydrogen atoms of
our Sun as well as atoms in the filament of a light bulb are at the source of
the processes that generates photons when subjected to heat. Source of heat can
be a chemical reaction in the case of a candle or a nuclear reaction in the
case of our Sun or an electric current in the case of a light bulb. Somehow,
these atoms are emitting photons when heated. Surprisingly, this phenomenon
fits very well into our earlier presentation of our atomic model which changes
its frequency and amplitude spectrum when heated. In other words, a heated atom
has more energy and less mass therefore it is now repelled, released and
emitted while glowing with radiant energy. Therefore photons are nothing other
than atoms that are emitted after reaching certain heat level so that their
frequencies increase to the levels of frequencies of the visible light. Since
visible light is a part of overall electromagnetic spectrum, we can assert that
our atoms become both photons and sources of radiation when sufficiently
heated.
But what about Cathode Rays? How are they generated in a Crookes Tube? A
Crookes Tube, invented by scientists including English Physicist Sir William
Crookes (1832 – 1919) between 1869 – 1875,
is a glass container with two metal electrodes, a negative electrode called Cathode and a
positive electrode called Anode, placed in its opposite ends. Air inside the
tube is mostly evacuated in order to lower the atmospheric pressure within.
When a high voltage electric current is applied to metal electrodes, a glowing
light beam appears between the cathode and the anode of the tube. This light
beam was later called a Cathode Ray and the Crookes Tube became known as a
Cathode Ray Tube. But how does our atomic model fits into the creation of
Cathode Rays?
When a high voltage electric current applied to the cathode and anode of a
Cathode Ray Tube, heat is generated. Heat elevates the frequency and amplitude
of the atoms and molecules that make up the Cathode, alters their E/M ratios
and with that atoms end up having more energy and lass mass. As a result, they
are repelled, freed and emitted from the Cathode to fly toward the Anode since
Anode is positively charged. Because heat has also elevated the frequency and
amplitude spectra of the atoms emitted from Cathode into the spectrum of the
visible light, they glow while flying towards Anode. If Cathode Rays are
subjected to a magnetic field they drift towards the positively charged plate
since the atoms that glow have their negative charges outside. Clearly, our
atoms have been misidentified as electrons, starting a scientific journey in
the wrong direction leading to the Standard Model.
If this is the case how do we explain the results of Rutherford’s Gold Foil
Experiments? Rutherford measured something he thought would best fit to the
atomic model of his times, atomic nucleus. If the prevailing atomic model of
his times were different, I wonder how his interpretation of his measurements
would have been different than the ones he proposed at the time. If Rutherford
could have known about the atomic model proposed in this book, would he have
proposed that he actually measured the size of an atom? We will never know…
But we know this. At the end of our reasoning in this book so far, we have
reached an inescapable conclusion that subatomic particles are in fact
variations of a single atomic model and that the single atom might in fact be
the smallest indivisible particle of all matter. After nearly 2500 years, we
are back to the original idea first proposed by Democritus. We have reached a
point in our reasoning that we can no longer support existence of subatomic
particles as proposed by the Standard Model. The atomic model we have proposed
in this book satisfies all tests we have thrown at it so far. Our assertions
are emboldened by the fact that at the time of this writing, it was established
beyond any reasonable doubt that the Higgs Boson doesn’t have enough mass to validate
the Standard Model and this changes everything.
